This study investigates the implications of rugged terrain on groundwater accessibility and rural livelihoods in selected communities across Ebonyi, Enugu, Cross River, and Akwa Ibom States, Nigeria. The research adopts a mixed-method approach, integrating quantitative data from 250 structured questionnaires with qualitative insights from 15 key informant interviews. The selected communities are characterized by steep slopes, elevated relief, fractured basement geology, and escarpment landscapes that influence groundwater occurrence and accessibility. Findings reveal that groundwater is the dominant source of domestic water supply in the study area, accounting for 72% of household water use; however, accessibility is significantly constrained by terrain conditions. Borehole performance analysis shows a high rate of failure and low yield, exceeding 70%, particularly in steep and fractured upland zones. More than 60% of households travel over 1 km to access water, indicating poor spatial accessibility of safe water sources. The study further demonstrates that rugged terrain significantly increases drilling costs, reduces recharge potential, and limits the effectiveness of groundwater development. The livelihood analysis indicates that inadequate groundwater accessibility negatively affects agricultural productivity, household income, livestock production, health outcomes, and time allocation, with women and children being disproportionately burdened by water collection activities. Qualitative findings confirm that terrain difficulty, high drilling failure rates, and seasonal water scarcity are major constraints, while coping strategies include rainwater harvesting and communal water sharing. The study concludes that rugged terrain is a critical determinant of groundwater accessibility and rural livelihood sustainability in the study area. It recommends improved hydrogeological surveying, the use of GIS-based groundwater mapping, investment in resilient water infrastructure, and strengthened community-based water management systems to enhance sustainable water access in upland regions of Nigeria.
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